08-16-2017, 08:42 PM
RFID BASED SHOPPING TROLLEY
SYNOPSIS:
The objective of this project is to improve the speed of purchase by using RFID. This project is designed to use the RFID based security system application in the shopping trolley.
This project is used in shopping complex for purchase the products. In this project RFID card is used as security access for product. If the product is put in to the trolley means it will shows the amount and also the total amount. But in this project RFID card is used for accessing the products. So this project improves the security performance and also the speed.
CHAPTER I
1.1. INTRODUCTION:
RFID is the special type wireless card which has inbuilt the embedded chip along with loop antenna. The inbuilt embedded chip represents the 12 digit card number. RFID reader is the circuit which generates 125KHZ magnetic signal. This magnetic signal is transmitted by the loop antenna connected along with this circuit which is used to read the RFID card number.
In this project RFID card is used as security access card. So each product has the individual RFID card which represents the product name. RFID reader is interfaced with microcontroller. Here the microcontroller is the flash type reprogrammable microcontroller in which we already programmed with card number. The microcontroller is interfaced with keypad.
1.2. BLOCK DIAGRAM:
This project is designed with
RFID tag
RFID reader
Microcontroller
Driver circuit
Alarm
Relay.
1.3. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
1.4. HISTORY:
In 1946 L on Theremin invented an espionage tool for the Soviet Union which retransmitted incident radio waves with audio information. Sound waves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the resonator, which modulated the reflected radio frequency. Even though this device was a passive covert listening device, not an identification tag, it has been attributed as a predecessor to RFID technology. The technology used in RFID has been around since the early 1920s according to one source (although the same source states that RFID systems have been around just since the late 1960s)
Similar technology, such as the IFF transponder invented in the United Kingdom in 1939, was routinely used by the allies in World War II to identify aircraft as friend or foe. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft to this day.
Another early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman, titled "Communication by Means of Reflected Power" (Proceedings of the IRE, pp 1196 1204, October 1948). Stockman predicted that " considerable research and development work has to be done before the remaining basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved, and before the field of useful applications is explored."
Mario Cardullo's U.S. Patent 3,713,148 in 1973 was the first true ancestor of modern RFID; a passive radio transponder with memory. The initial device was passive, powered by the interrogating signal, and was demonstrated in 1971 to the New York Port Authority and other potential users and consisted of a transponder with 16 bit memory for use as a toll device. The basic Cardullo patent covers the use of RF, sound and light as transmission media. The original business plan presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation (automotive vehicle identification, automatic toll system, electronic license plate, electronic manifest, vehicle routing, vehicle performance monitoring), banking (electronic check book, electronic credit card), security (personnel identification, automatic gates, surveillance) and medical (identification, patient history).
A very early demonstration of reflected power (modulated backscatter) RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive, was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle and Robert Freyman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1973[2]. The portable system operated at 915 MHz and used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority of today's UHFID and microwave RFID tags.
The first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted to Charles Walton in 1983
1.5. INTRODUCTION TO RIFD
Libraries began using RFID systems to replace their electro-magnetic and bar code systems in the late 1990s. Approximately 130 libraries in North America are using RFID systems, but hundreds more are considering it (Molnar, Wagner, 2004). The primary cost impediment is the price of each individual tag. Today, tags cost approximately seventy-five cents but prices continue to fall. However, privacy concerns associated with item-level tagging is another significant
Impediment to library use of RFID tags. The problem with today s library RFID systems is that the tags contain static information that can be relatively easily read by unauthorized tag readers. This allows for privacy issues described as tracking and hot listing. Tracking refers to the ability track the movement of a book (or person carrying the book) by correlating multiple observations of the book s bar code (Molnar and Wagner, 2004) or RFID tag. Hot listing refers to process of building a database of books and their associated tag numbers (the holist) and then using an unauthorized reader to determine, who is checking out items on the hot list.
Current standards (ISO 15693) apply to container-level tagging used in supply chain applications, and do not address problems of tracking and hot listing. Next generation tags (ISO 18000) are designed for item-level tagging. The newer tags are capable of resolving many of privacy problems of today s tags. However, no library RFID products are currently available using the new standard. Libraries implementing RFID systems today are using tags unsuited for item-level tagging and the cost of upgrading to newer tags when they become available is well beyond the reach of most library budgets. This chapter addresses many of the specific issues and privacy concerns associated with RFID technology in libraries, and suggest best RFID-implementation practices for librarians. Finally, we explore the larger responsibilities of libraries in regards to RFID, public policy, privacy and the changing world of technology.
i. RFID System Components and Their Effects in Libraries
An RFID system consists of three components: the tag, the reader and the application that makes use of the data the reader reads on the tag. Tag Also known as a transponder, the tag consists of an antenna and silicon chip encapsulated in glass or plastic (Want, 2004). The tags contain a very small amount of information. For example, many tags contain only a bar code number and security bit (128 bits) but some tags contain as much as 1,024 bits (Boss, 2003). Tags range in size from the size of a grain of rice to two inch squares depending on their application. Researchers are now working on tags as small as a speck of dust (Cavoukian, February 2004). Tags can be passive, active or semi-active. An active tag contains some type of power source on the tag, whereas the passive tags rely on the radio signal sent by the reader for
Power. Most RFID applications today utilize passive tags because they are so much cheaper to manufacture. However, the lack of power poses significant restrictions on the tag s ability to perform computations and communicate with the reader. It must be within range of the reader to function. Semi-active tags are not yet commercially available but will use a battery to run the microchip s circuitry but not to communicate with the reader. Semi-active tags rely on
Capacitive coupling and carbon ink for the antennas rather than the traditional inductive coupling and silver or aluminum antenna used in passive tags (Collins, 2004). Tags operate over a range of frequencies. Passive tags can be low frequency (LF) or high frequency (HF). LF tags operate at 125 KHz, are relatively expensive, and have a low read range (less than 0.5 meters). HF tags operate at 13.56 MHz, have a longer read range (approximately 1 meter) and are less expensive that LF tags. Most library applications use HF tags (Allied Business Intelligence [ABI], 2002). Tags can be Read Only (RO), Write Once Read Many (WORM) or Read Write (RW) (Boss, 2003). RO tags are preprogrammed with a unique number like a serial number (or perhaps eventually an ISBN number). WORM tags are preprogrammed but additional information can be added if space permits. RW tags can be updated dynamically. Sometimes space on the RW tags is locked where permanent data is kept and the rest of the tag is writable.
According to Sharma et al. (2002), RFID readers or receivers are composed of a radio frequency module, a control unit and an antenna to interrogate electronic tags via radio frequency (RF) communication. Many also include an interface that communicates with an application (such as the library s circulation system). Readers can be hand-held or mounted in strategic locations so as to ensure they are able to read the tags as the tags pass through an interrogation zone. The interrogation zone is the area within which a reader can read the tag. The size of the interrogation zone varies depending on the type of tag and the power of the reader. Passive tags, with shorter read ranges, tend to operate within a smaller interrogation zone (Sarma, et al., 2002). Most RFID readers in libraries can read tags up to 16 inches away (Boss, 2003). 1. Conversion station Where library data is written to the tags
2. Staff workstation at circulation Used to check-in and check-out materials
3. Patron self check-out station Used to check-out books without staff assistance
4. Exit sensors Verify that all books leaving the library have been checked out
5. Patron self check-in station Used to check in books without staff assistance
6. Book drop reader Checks in books when patrons drop them in the book drop
7. Sorter Automated system for returning books to proper area of library
8. Portable reader Hand-held reader for inventorying and verifying that items are shelved correctly.
ii. APPLICATION
Once the reader reads the tag, the information is passed on to an application that makes use of the information. Examples of applications and their uses fall into at least six categories:
1. Access control (keyless entry)
2. Asset tracking (self check-in and self check-out)
3. Asset tagging and identification (inventory and shelving)
4. Authentication (counterfeit prevention)
5. Point-of-sale (POS) (FastTrak)
6. Supply chain management (SCM) (tracking of containers, pallets or individual items from manufacturer to retailer) RFID is most pervasive in the SCM market. ABI (2002) reports that by 2007, SCM and asset management applications will account for more than 70% of all transponder (tag) shipments. In the SCM market, items are tracked by pallet or container, not by individual item. Once the individual items are removed from the pallet, they are no longer tagged. In contrast, library applications require that each individual item contain a tag that uniquely identifies the item (book, CD, DVD, etc). The tag contains some amount of static data (bar code number, manufacturer ID number) that is permanently affixed to the library item. This information is conveyed, via reader, to the library s security, circulation and inventory applications.
1.6. RFID TAGS
RFID tags come in three general varieties:- passive, active, or semi-passive (also known as battery-assisted or semi-active) and beacon types. Passive tags require no internal power source, thus being pure passive devices (they are only active when a reader is nearby to power them by wireless illumination), whereas semi-passive and active tags require a power source, usually a small battery. Beacon tags transmit autonomously with a certain blink pattern and do not respond to interrogation.
To communicate, tags respond to queries generating signals that must not create interference with the readers, as arriving signals can be very weak and must be differentiated. Besides backscattering, load modulation techniques can be used to manipulate the reader's field. Typically, backscatter is used in the far field, whereas load modulation applies in the near field, within a few wavelengths from the reader.
i. PASSIVE
Passive RFID tags have no internal power supply. The minute electrical current induced in the antenna by the incoming radio frequency signal provides just enough power for the CMOS integrated circuit in the tag to power up and transmit a response. Most passive tags signal by backscattering the carrier wave from the reader. This means that the antenna has to be designed both to collect power from the incoming signal and also to transmit the outbound backscatter signal. The response of a passive RFID tag is not necessarily just an ID number; the tag chip can contain non-volatile data, possibly writable EEPROM for storing data.
Passive tags have practical read distances ranging from about 11 cm (4 in) with near-field (ISO 14443), up to approximately 10 meters (33 feet) with far-field (ISO 18000-6) and can reach up to 183 meters (600 feet)[5] when combined with a phased array. Basically, the reading and writing depend on the chosen radio frequency and the antenna design/size. Due to their simplicity in design they are also suitable for manufacture with a printing process for the antennas. The lack of an onboard power supply means that the device can be quite small: commercially available products exist that can be embedded in a sticker, or under the skin in the case of low frequency (LowFID) RFID tags.
In 2007, the Danish Company RFIDsec developed a passive RFID with privacy enhancing technologies built-in including built-in firewall access controls, communication encryption and a silent mode ensuring that the consumer at point of sales can get exclusive control of the key to control the RFID. The RFID will not respond unless the consumer authorizes it, the consumer can validate presence of a specific RFID without leaking identifiers and therefore the consumer can make use of the RFID without being trackable or otherwise leak information that represents a threat to consumer privacy.
In 2006, Hitachi, Ltd. developed a passive device called the -Chip measuring 0.15 0.15 mm (not including the antenna), and thinner than a sheet of paper (7.5 micrometers).Silicon on insulator (SOI) technology is used to achieve this level of integration. The Hitachi -Chip can wirelessly transmit a 128-bit unique ID number which is hard-coded into the chip as part of the manufacturing process. The unique ID in the chip cannot be altered, providing a high level of authenticity to the chip and ultimately to the items the chip may be permanently attached or embedded into. The Hitachi -Chip has a typical maximum read range of 30 cm (1 ft). In February 2007 Hitachi unveiled an even smaller RFID device measuring 0.05 0.05 mm, and thin enough to be embedded in a sheet of paper. The new chips can store as much data as the older -chips, and the data contained on them can be extracted from as far away as a few hundred meters. The ongoing problems with all RFIDs are that they need an external antenna which is 80 times bigger than the chip in the best version thus far developed. Further, the present costs of manufacturing the inlays for tags have inhibited broader adoption. As silicon prices are reduced and new more economic methods for manufacturing inlays and tags are perfected in the industry, broader adoption and item level tagging along with economies of scale production scenarios; it is expected to make RFID both innocuous and commonplace much like barcodes are presently.
Alien Technology's Fluidic Self Assembly and HiSam machines, Smart code s Flexible Area Synchronized Transfer (FAST) and Symbol Technologies' PICA process are alleged to potentially further reduce tag costs by massively parallel production[citation needed]. Alien Technology and Smart Code are currently using the processes to manufacture tags while Symbol Technologies' PICA process is still in the development phase. Symbol was acquired by Motorola in 2006. Motorola however has since made agreements with Avery Dennison for supply of tags, meaning their own tag production and PICA process may have been abandoned.[9] Alternative methods of production such as FAST, FSA, HiSam and possibly PICA could potentially reduce tag costs dramatically, and due to volume capacities achievable, in turn be able to also drive the economies of scale models for various silicon fabricators as well. Some passive RFID vendors believe that industry benchmarks for tag costs can be achieved eventually as new low-cost volume production systems are implemented more broadly. (For example, see [4])
Non-silicon tags made from polymer semiconductors are currently being developed by several companies globally. Simple laboratory-printed polymer tags operating at 13.56 MHz were demonstrated in 2005 by both PolyIC (Germany) and Philips (The Netherlands). If successfully commercialized, polymer tags will be roll-printable, like a magazine, and much less expensive than silicon-based tags. The end game for most item-level tagging over the next few decades may be that RFID tags will be wholly printed the same way that a barcode is today and be virtually free, like a barcode. However, substantial technical and economic hurdles must be surmounted to accomplish such an end: hundreds of billions of dollars have been invested over the last three decades in silicon processing, resulting in a per-feature cost which is actually less than that of conventional printing.
ii. ACTIVE
Unlike passive RFID tags, active RFID tags have their own internal power source, which is used to power the integrated circuits and to broadcast the response signal to the reader. Communications from active tags to readers is typically much more reliable (i.e. fewer errors) than those from passive tags due to the ability for active tags to conduct a "session" with a reader.
Active tags, due to their onboard power supply, also may transmit at higher power levels than passive tags, allowing them to be more robust in "RF challenged" environments with humidity and spray or with RF-dampening targets (including humans and cattle, which contain mostly water), reflective targets from metal (shipping containers, vehicles), or at longer distances. In turn, active tags can be larger (due to battery size) and more expensive to manufacture (due to price of the battery). However, the potential shelf life of an active tag can be many years.
Many active tags today have operational ranges of hundreds of meters, and a battery life from several months to 10 years. Active tags may include larger memories than passive tags, and may include the ability to store additional information received from the reader.
Special active RFID tags may include specialized sensors. For example, a temperature sensor can be used to record the temperature profile during the transportation and storage of perishable goods. Other sensor types used include humidity, shock/vibration, light, nuclear radiation, pressure and concentrations of gases such as ethylene.
Increasingly, active tags on the market today are internationally standardized according to the ISO 18000-7 air interface standard, which operates at the 433 MHz frequency. In addition, active tags that are sold in the form of an electronic seal are standardized according to the ISO 18185 standard.
The United States Department of Defense (DoD) has successfully used active tags to reduce search and loss in logistics and to improve supply chain visibility for more than 15 years (concept of in-transit-visibility, ITV[5]). The DoD is increasingly relying on active tags to monitor the environmental status of assets and material using onboard sensors.
Extended capability
Extended capability RFID defines a category of RFID that goes beyond the basic capabilities of standard RFID as merely a "license plate" or barcode replacement technology. Key attributes of extended capability RFID include the ability to read at longer distances and around challenging environments, to store large amounts of data on the tag, to integrate with sensors, and to communicate with external devices.
Examples of extended capability RFID tag technologies include EPC C1G2 with extended memory (e.g. 64Kb), battery-assisted passive, and active RFID. Battery-assisted passive, also known as semi-passive or semi-active, has the ability to extend the read range of standard passive technologies to well over 50 meters, to read around challenging materials such as metal, to withstand outdoor environments, to store an on-tag database, to be able to capture sensor data, and to act as a communications mechanism for external devices. Also, battery-assisted passive only transmits a signal when interrogated, thus extending battery life. Active RFID, which can have some of the features of battery-assisted passive, is commonly used for even longer distances and real-time locationing. It also actively transmits a signal, which often results in shorter battery life.
Common applications of extended capability RFID include Yard Management, Parts Maintenance and Repair Operations, Cold-Chain Management, Reusable Transport Items tracking, High Value/High Security Asset tracking, and other applications where extended capabilities are needed.
1.7. WORKING PRINCIPLE
i. RFID DETAILS
Radio frequency identification (commonly abbreviated to RFID) is so-named because it relates to the identification of objects using EM radiation at radio frequencies. In Table 2 we saw that a large range of frequencies within the EM spectrum are referred to as radio
Frequencies (RF), which results in a number of different forms of RFID. Once again, RFID systems may be categorized based on the band of the EM spectrum that they operate in. RFID systems in the same band will generally display similar characteristics; those in other bands may well operate very differently and therefore be more or less suitable for a given application. An RFID system comprises two components an RFID reader and an RFID tag. Despite its name, the RFID reader is really the transmitter in an RFID system. The electronics in the reader uses an external power source to generate the signal that drives the reader s antenna and which in turn creates the appropriate radio wave. This radio wave may be received by an RFID tag, which in turn reflects some of the energy it receives in a particular way (based on the identity of the tag). Whilst this reflection is going on, the RFID reader is also acting as a radio receiver, so that it can detect and decode the reflected signal in order to identify the tag.
An RFID system is specifically designed to be asymmetric the reader is big, expensive and power hungry compared to the RFID tag. There are a number of different types of RFID system, but one basic categorization is based on the power source used by the tag
1. Passive tag RFID systems require no power source at the tag there is no battery. Instead, the tag uses the energy of the radio wave to power its operation, much like a crystal radio. This results in the lowest tag cost, but at the expense of performance.
2. Semi-passive tag RFID systems rely on a battery built into the tag in order to achieve better performance (typically in terms of operating range). The battery powers the internal circuitry of the tag during communication, but is not used to generate radio waves.
3. Active tag systems use batteries for their entire operation, and can therefore generate radio waves proactively, even in the absence of an RFID reader.
Passive tag RFID systems are the most common type, and are often referred to simply as RFID systems .
1.8. RANGE OF RFID SYSTEMS
With an RFID system, the term range naturally refers to the maximum operating distance between the reader antenna and the tag, and the field of the reader is the specific operating area. The frequency of operation used for an RFID system has a big effect on the operating range. Analysis of the physics of RFID communications shows that the optimum frequency is around 400-500MHz [9]. Such analysis cannot be made generically - there are a number of factors to take into account and these will have different effects based on the intended application. Example factors that will be affected
by the choice of frequency include: size of tag antenna, ease of power delivery to the tag, ease of communication of tag back to reader, cost and speed of communication.
The range of RFID systems operating in the UHF band is governed largely by the principles outlined. This means that the ability of the reader to power and communicate to the tag is based on the inverse square law (1/r ), as will the return path of reflected signals from the tag to the reader. Operation will also be affected by environmental conditions and interference from other radio sources at the same frequency. RFID systems that operate in the HF band of the spectrum work in a very different way to those using the UHF band and it is useful to understand this fundamental difference and the effect it has on operating range. If communication occurs over a short distance, relative to the wavelength of the radio wave, this is said to be near-field operation. Since HF (3-30MHz) RFID systems use waves with a wavelength of around
10-100m, if the distance of the communication is much less than this (which is the case in RFID) then this is a near-field communication. Near-field communication is based on a magnetic field effect, which has an inverse sixth power (1/r ) relationship with range.
Of course, if a directional antenna is used, its radiation pattern will also affect the reader field.
CHAPTER 2
2.1 CONCEPTS OF MICROCONTROLLER:
Microcontroller is a general purpose device, which integrates a number of the components of a microprocessor system on to single chip. It has inbuilt CPU, memory and peripherals to make it as a mini computer. A microcontroller combines on to the same microchip:
1. The CPU core
2. Memory(both ROM and RAM)
3. Some parallel digital I/O
MICROCONTROLLERS WILL COMBINE OTHER DEVICES SUCH AS:
1. A timer module to allow the microcontroller to perform tasks for certain time periods.
2. A serial I/O port to allow data to flow between the controller and other devices such as a PIC or another microcontroller.
3. An ADC to allow the microcontroller to accept analogue input data for processing.
MICROCONTROLLERS ARE:
1. Smaller in size
2. Consumes less power
3. Inexpensive
Micro controller is a standalone unit, which can perform functions on its own without any requirement for additional hardware like I/O ports and external memory.
The heart of the microcontroller is the CPU core. In the past, this has traditionally been based on an 8-bit microprocessor unit. For example Motorola uses a basic 6800 microprocessor core in their 6805/6808 microcontroller devices.
In the recent years, microcontrollers have been developed around specifically designed CPU cores, for example the microchip PIC range of microcontrollers.
2.2 INTRODUCTION TO PIC:
The microcontroller that has been used for this project is from PIC series. PIC microcontroller is the first RISC based microcontroller fabricated in CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) that uses separate bus for instruction and data allowing simultaneous access of program and data memory.
The main advantage of CMOS and RISC combination is low power consumption resulting in a very small chip size with a small pin count. The main advantage of CMOS is that it has immunity to noise than other fabrication techniques.
i. PIC (16F877):
Various microcontrollers offer different kinds of memories. EEPROM, EPROM, FLASH etc. are some of the memories of which FLASH is the most recently developed. Technology that is used in pic16F877 is flash technology, so that data is retained even when the power is switched off. Easy Programming and Erasing are other features of PIC 16F877.
ii. PIC START PLUS PROGRAMMER:
The PIC start plus development system from microchip technology provides the product development engineer with a highly flexible low cost microcontroller design tool set for all microchip PIC micro devices. The Picstart plus development system includes PIC start plus development programmer and MPLAB id.The PIC start plus programmer gives the product developer ability to program user software in to any of the supported microcontrollers. The PIC start plus software running under MPLAB provides for full interactive control over the programmer.
2.3 PIC MICROCONTROLLER
i. CORE FEATURES:
1. High-performance RISC CPU
2. Only 35 single word instructions to learn
3. Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input
DC - 200 ns instruction cycle
4. Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory,
5. Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM)
6. Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM data memory
7. Interrupt capability (up to 14 internal/external
8. Eight level deep hardware stack
9. Direct, indirect, and relative addressing modes
10. Power-on Reset (POR)
11. Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)
12. Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC Oscillator for reliable operation
13. Programmable code-protection
14. Power saving SLEEP mode
15. Selectable oscillator options
16. In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) via two pins
17. Only single 5V source needed for programming capability
18. In-Circuit Debugging via two pins
19. Wide operating voltage range: 2.5V to 5.5V
20. High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA
21. Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges
22. Low-power consumption
ii. PERIPHERAL FEATURES:
1. Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler
2. Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler
3. Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler
4. Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules
i. Capture is 16-bit, max resolution is 12.5 ns,
ii. Compare is 16-bit, max resolution is 200 ns,
ii. PWM max Resolution is 10-bit
5. 10-bit multi-channel Analog-to-Digital converter
6. Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI. (Master Mode) and I2C. (Master/Slave)
7. USART/SCI with 9-bit address detection. Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8-bits wide, with external RD, WR and CS controls.
2.4 ARCHITECTURE OF PIC 16F877
DEVICE PROGRAM FLASH DATA MEMORY DATA EEPROM
PIC 16F877 8K 368 Bytes 256 Bytes
2.5 PIN DIAGRAM :
i. PIN OUT DESCRIBTION :
ii. I/O PORTS
Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the peripheral features on the device. In general, when a peripheral is enabled, that pin may not be used as a general purpose I/O pin.
a) PORTA and TRISA Register
PORTA is a 6-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRISA. Setting a TRISA bit (=1) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an input, i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a Hi-impedance mode. Clearing a TRISA bit (=0) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an output, i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin.
Reading the PORTA register reads the status of the pins whereas writing to it will write to the port latch. All write operations are read-modify-write operations. Therefore a write to a port implies that the port pins are read; this value is modified, and then written to the port data latch. Pin RA4 is multiplexed with the Timer0 module clock input to become the RA4/T0CKI pin. The RA4/T0CKI pin is a Schmitt Trigger input and an open drain output. All other RA port pins have TTL input levels and full CMOS output drivers. Other PORTA pins are multiplexed with analog inputs and analog VREF input. The operation of each pin is selected by clearing/setting the control bits in the ADCON1 register (A/D Control Register1).
The TRISA register controls the direction of the RA pins, even when they are being used as analog inputs. The user must ensure the bits in the TRISA register are maintained set when using them as analog inputs.
b) PORT A Function
c) PORTB and the TRISB Register
PORTB is an 8-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRISB. Setting a TRISB bit (=1) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an input, i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a hi-impedance mode.
Clearing a TRISB bit (=0) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an output, i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin. Three pins of PORTB are multiplexed with the Low Voltage Programming function; RB3/PGM, RB6/PGC and RB7/PGD. The alternate functions of these pins are described in the Special Features Section. Each of the PORTB pins has a weak internal pull-up. A single control bit can turn on all the pull-ups. This is performed by clearing bit RBPU (OPTION_REG<7>). The weak pull-up is automatically turned off when the port pin is configured as an output. The pull-ups are disabled on a Power-on Reset.
Four of PORTB s pins, RB7:RB4, have an interrupt on change feature. Only pins configured as inputs can cause this interrupt to occur (i.e. any RB7:RB4 pin configured as an output is excluded from the interrupt on change comparison). The input pins (of RB7:RB4) are compared with the old value latched on the last read of PORTB. The mismatch outputs of RB7:RB4 are Robed together to generate the RB Port Change Interrupt with flag bit RBIF (INTCON<0>). This interrupt can wake the device from SLEEP. The user, in the interrupt service routine, can clear the interrupt in the following manner:
a) Any read or write of PORTB. This will end the mismatch condition.
b) Clear flag bit RBIF. A mismatch condition will continue to set flag bit RBIF. Reading PORTB will end the mismatch condition, and allow flag bit RBIF to be cleared. The interrupt on change feature is recommended for wake-up on key depression operation and operations where PORTB is only used for the interrupt on change feature. Polling of PORTB is not recommended while using the interrupt on change feature. This interrupt on mismatch feature, together with software configurable pull-ups on these four pins, allow easy interface to a keypad and make it possible for wake-up on key depression
d) PORT B FUNCTIONS
e) PORT-C and the TRISC Register:
PORTC is an 8-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRISC. Setting a TRISC bit (=1) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an input, i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a hi-impedance mode. Clearing a TRISC bit (=0) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an output, i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin. PORTC is multiplexed with several peripheral functions (Table-3.5). PORTC pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers.
When the I2C module is enabled, the PORTC (3:4) pins can be configured with normal I2C levels or with SMBUS levels by using the CKE bit (SSPSTAT <6>).
When enabling peripheral functions, care should be taken in defining TRIS bits for each PORTC pin. Some peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an output, while other peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an input. Since the TRIS bit override is in effect while the peripheral is enabled, read-modify write instructions (BSF, BCF, XORWF) with TRISC as destination should be avoided. The user should refer to the corresponding peripheral section for the correct TRIS bit settings.
f) PORT-C FUNCTIONS:
g) PORT-D and TRISD Registers:
This section is not applicable to the 28-pin devices. PORTD is an 8-bit port with Schmitt Trigger input buffers. Each pin is individually configurable as an input or output.
PORTD can be configured as an 8-bit wide microprocessor Port (parallel slave port) by setting control bit PSPMODE (TRISE<4>). In this mode, the input buffers are TTL.
h) PORT-D FUNCTIONS:
i) PORTE and TRISE Register :
PORTE has three pins RE0/RD/AN5, RE1/WR/AN6 and RE2/CS/AN7, which are individually configurable as inputs or outputs. These pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers.
The PORTE pins become control inputs for the microprocessor port when bit PSPMODE (TRISE<4>) is set. In this mode, the user must make sure that the TRISE<2:0> bits are set (pins are configured as digital inputs). Ensure ADCON1 is configured for digital I/O. In this mode the input buffers are TTL.
PORTE pins are multiplexed with analog inputs. When selected as an analog input, these pins will read as '0's. TRISE controls the direction of the RE pins, even when they are being used as analog inputs. The user must make sure to keep the pins configured as inputs when using them as analog inputs.
j) PORTE FUNCTIONS :
2.6 MEMORY ORGANISATION:
There are three memory blocks in each of the PIC16f877 MUCs. The program memory and Data Memory have separate buses so that concurrent access can occur.
i. PROGRAM MEMORY ORGANIZATION :
The PIC16f877 devices have a 13-bit program counter capable of addressing 8K *14 words of FLASH program memory. Accessing a location above the physically implemented address will cause a wraparound.
The RESET vector is at 0000h and the interrupt vector is at 0004h.
ii. DATA MEMORY ORGANIZATION :
The data memory is partitioned into multiple banks which contain the General Purpose Registers and the special functions Registers. Bits RP1 (STATUS<6) and RP0 (STATYUS<5>) are the bank selected bits.
RP1:RP0 Banks
00 0
01 1
10 2
11 3
Each bank extends up to 7Fh (1238 bytes). The lower locations of each bank are reserved for the Special Function Registers. Above the Special Function Registers are General Purpose Registers, implemented as static RAM. All implemented banks contain special function registers. Some frequently used special function registers from one bank may be mirrored in another bank for code reduction and quicker access.
ii. GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTER FILE
The register file can be accessed either directly or indirectly through the File Selected Register (FSR).
a. FIGURE PIC16F877 REGISTER FILE MAP
iv. INSTRUCTION SET SUMMARY
Each PIC 16f877 instruction is a 14-bit word, divided into an OPCODE which specifies the instruction type and one or more operand which further specify the operation of the instruction. The PIC16F877 instruction set summary in table 12 lists byte-oriented, bit-oriented, and literal and control operations. Table11 shows the opcode Field descriptions.
For byte-oriented instructions, f; represents a file register designator and d represents a destination designator. The file register designator speciri4s which file register is to be used by the instruction. The destination designator specified where the result of the operation is to be placed. If d is zero, the result is placed in the w register. If d is one, the result is placed in the file register specified in the instruction.
For bit-oriented instructions, b represents a bit field designator which selects the number of the bit affected by the operation, which f represents the address of the file in which the bits is located.
For literal and control operations, k represents an eight or eleven bit constant or literal value.
v. OPCODE FIELD DESCRIPTIONS:
The instruction set is highly orthogonal and is grouped into three basic categories:
Byte-oriented operations
Bit-oriented operations
Literal and control operations
All instructions are executed within one single instruction cycle, unless a conditional test is true or the program counter is changed as a result of an instruction. In this case, the execution takes two instruction cycles with the second cycle executed as a NOP. One instruction cycle consists of four oscillator periods. Thus, for an oscillator frequency of 4 MHz, the normal instruction execution time is 1 ms, if a conditional test is true or the program counter is changed as a result of an instruction, the instruction execution time is 2 ms.
vi. GENERAL FORMAT FOR INSTRUCTIONS
vii. 16F877 INSTRUCTION SET :
CHAPTER 3
3.1. RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw (changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the page link is magnetic and mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. For further information about switch contacts and the terms used to describe them please see the page on switches.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:
COM - Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.
NC - Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO - Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.
i. CHOOSING A RELAY
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:
1. Physical size and pin arrangement:
If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the supplier's catalogue.
2. Coil voltage:
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a little lower than their rated value.
3. Coil:
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use Ohm's law to calculate the current:
Relay coil current = supply voltage
coil resistance4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a current of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current 200mA), but it is too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to amplify the current.
5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)
The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".
6. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)
Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further information please see the page on switches.
ii. Protection diodes for relays
Transistors and ICs (chips) must be protected from the brief high voltage 'spike' produced when the relay coil is switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode (eg 1N4148) is connected across the relay coil to provide this protection. Note that the diode is connected 'backwards' so that it will normally not conduct. Conduction only occurs when the relay coil is switched off, at this moment current tries to continue flowing through the coil and it is harmlessly diverted through the diode. Without the diode no current could flow and the coil would produce a damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the current flowing.
ii. Advantages of relays:
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
Relays can switch many contacts at once.
iv. Disadvantages of relays:
1. Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
3.2. LCD DISPLAY
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) have materials which combine the properties of both liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they have a temperature range within which the molecules are almost as mobile as they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an ordered form similar to a crystal.
An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material sand witched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated with transparent electrodes which define the character, symbols or patterns to be displayed polymeric layers are present in between the electrodes and the liquid crystal, which makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation angle.
One each polarisers are pasted outside the two glass panels. These polarisers would rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite angle, in a particular direction
When the LCD is in the off state, light rays are rotated by the two polarisers and the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come out of the LCD without any orientation, and hence the LCD appears transparent.
When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal molecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing through the LCD would be rotated by the polarisers, which would result in activating / highlighting the desired characters.
The LCD s are lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since the LCD s consume less power, they are compatible with low power electronic circuits, and can be powered for long durations.
The LCD does don t generate light and so light is needed to read the display. By using backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. The LCD s have long life and a wide operating temperature range.
Changing the display size or the layout size is relatively simple which makes the LCD s more customer friendly.
The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring instruments are the simple seven-segment displays, having a limited amount of numeric data. The recent advances in technology have resulted in better legibility, more information displaying capability and a wider temperature range. These have resulted in the LCDs being extensively used in telecommunications and entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started replacing the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and graphics, and also in small TV applications.
3.3. RCM2034R:
The RCM2034R is a reflective TN type liquid crystal module with a built-in controller / driver LSI and a display capacity of 16 characters 1 line.
Applications
Personal computers, word processors, facsimiles, telephones, etc.
Features
1) Wide viewing angle and high contrast.
2) 5_7 dot character matrix with cursor.
3) Interfaces with 4-bit or 8-bit MPUs.
4) Displays up to 226 characters and special symbols.
5) Custom character patterns are displayed with the character RAM.
6) Abundant instruction set including clear display, cursor on /off, and character blinking.
7) Compact and light weight for easy assembly to thehost instrument.
8) Operable on single 5 V power supply.
9) Low power consumption.
3.4. OSCILLATOR
The majority of clock sources for microcontrollers can be grouped into two types: those based on mechanical resonant devices, such as crystals and ceramic resonators, and those based on electrical phase-shift circuits such as RC (resistor, capacitor) oscillators. Silicon oscillators are typically a fully integrated version of the RC oscillator with the added benefits of current sources, matched resistors and capacitors, and temperature-compensation circuits for increased stability. Two examples of clock sources are illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1a shows a Pierce oscillator configuration suitable for use with mechanical resonant devices like crystals and ceramic resonators, while Figure 1b shows a simple RC feedback oscillator.
Primary Differences between Mechanical Resonators and RC Oscillators Crystal and ceramic resonator-based oscillators (mechanical) typically provide very high initial accuracy and a moderately low temperature coefficient. RC oscillators, in contrast, provide fast startup and low cost, but generally suffer from poor accuracy over temperature and supply voltage, and show variations from 5% to 50% of nominal output frequency. While the circuits illustrated in Figure 1 can produce clean reliable clock signals, their performance will be heavily influenced by environmental conditions, circuit component choice, and the layout of the oscillator circuit. Ceramic resonators and their associated load capacitance values must be optimized for operation with particular logic families. Crystals, with their higher Q, are not as sensitive to amplifier selection but are susceptible to frequency shifts (and even damage) when overdriven. Environmental factors like electromagnetic interference (EMI), mechanical vibration and shock, humidity, and temperature affect oscillator operation. These environmental factors can cause output frequency changes, increased jitter, and in severe cases, can cause the oscillator to stop functioning.
i. OSCILLATOR MODULES :
Many of the considerations described above can be avoided through use of oscillator modules. These modules contain all oscillator circuit components and provide a clock signal as a low-impedance square-wave output. Operation is guaranteed over a range of conditions. Crystal oscillator modules and fully integrated silicon oscillators are most common. Crystal oscillator modules provide accuracy similar to discrete component circuits using crystals. Silicon oscillators are more precise than discrete component RC oscillator circuits, and many provide comparable accuracy to ceramic resonator-based oscillators.
ii. POWER CONSUMPTION :
Power consumption is another important consideration of oscillator selection. The power consumption of discrete component crystal-oscillator circuits is primarily determined by the feedback-amplifier supply current and by the in-circuit capacitance values used. The power consumption of amplifiers fabricated in CMOS is largely proportional to the operating frequency and can be expressed as a power-dissipation capacitance value. The power-dissipation capacitance value of an HC04 inverter gate used as an inverting amplifier, for example, is typically 90pF. For operation at 4MHz from a 5V supply, this equates to a supply current of 1.8mA. The discrete component crystal oscillator circuit will typically include an additional load capacitance value of 20pF, and the total supply current becomes 2.2mA.Ceramic resonator circuits typically specify larger load capacitance values than crystal circuits, and draw still more current than the crystal circuit using the same amplifier. By comparison, crystal oscillator modules typically draw between 10mA and 60mA of supply current because of the temperature compensation and control functions included. The supply current for silicon oscillators depends on type and function, and can range from a few micro-amps for low-frequency (fixed) devices to tens of mille-amps for programmable-frequency parts. A low-power silicon oscillator, such as the MAX7375, draws less than 2mA when operating at 4MHz.Summary the optimal clock source for a particular microcontroller application is determined by a combination of factors including accuracy, cost, power consumption, and environmental requirements. The following table summarizes the common oscillator circuit types discussed here, together with their strengths and weaknesses.
LCD is Stands for liquid crystal display. It is used to display the data s which is came from PIC. It contains the 16 pin. 8 pin is used for data communication, read, write, enable, Brightness control and 4 pins for power supply.
3.5. POTENTIAL TRONSFORMER
Potential Transformer is designed for monitoring single-phase and three-phase power line voltages in power metering applications.
The primary terminals can be connected either in line-to-line or in line-to-neutral configuration. Fused transformer models are designated by a suffix of "F" for one fuse or "FF" for two fuses.
A Potential Transformer is a special type of transformer that allows meters to take readings from electrical service connections with higher voltage (potential) than the meter is normally capable of handling without at potential transformer.
i. POWER SUPPLIES
The present chapter introduces the operation of power supply circuits built using filters, rectifiers, and then voltage regulators. Starting with an ac voltage, a steady dc voltage is obtained by rectifying the ac voltage, then filtering to a dc level, and finally, regulating to obtain a desired fixed dc voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an IC voltage regulator unit, which takes a dc voltage and provides a somewhat lower dc voltage, which remains the same even if the input dc voltage varies, or the output load connected to the dc voltage changes.
A block diagram containing the parts of a typical power supply and the voltage at various points in the unit is shown in fig 19.1. The ac voltage, typically 120 V rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps that ac voltage down to the level for the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation. A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage but also remains the same dc value even if the input dc voltage varies somewhat, or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes. This voltage regulation is usually obtained using one of a number of popular voltage regulator IC units.
ii. IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS:
Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device, and overload protection all in a single IC. Although the internal construction of the IC is somewhat different from that described for discrete voltage regulator circuits, the external operation is much the same. IC units provide regulation of either a fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an adjustably set voltage.
A power supply can be built using a transformer connected to the ac supply line to step the ac voltage to a desired amplitude, then rectifying that ac voltage, filtering with a capacitor and RC filter, if desired, and finally regulating the dc voltage using an IC regulator. The regulators can be selected for operation with load currents from hundreds of milli amperes to tens of amperes, corresponding to power ratings from milliwatts to tens of watts.
ii. THREE-TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATORS:
Fig shows the basic connection of a three-terminal voltage regulator IC to a load. The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage, Vi, applied to one input terminal, a regulated output dc voltage, Vo, from a second terminal, with the third terminal connected to ground. For a selected regulator, IC device specifications list a voltage range over which the input voltage can vary to maintain a regulated output voltage over a range of load current. The specifications also list the amount of output voltage change resulting from a change in load current (load regulation) or in input voltage (line regulation).
iv. FIXED POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS:
POINTS TO REMEMBER
LCD
LCD is Stands for liquid crystal display. It is used to display the data s which is came from PIC. It contains the 16 pin. 8 pin is used for data communication, read, write, enable, Brightness control and 4 pins for power supply.
POWER SUPPLY
Power supply is used to give the 5V to the controller. 5V can be received from IC voltage regulator. In side the power supply rectifier, filter is present.
RFID READER
RFID reader is used to read the data s present in the RFID tag. RFID readers or receivers are composed of a radio frequency module, a control unit and an antenna to interrogate electronic tags via radio frequency (RF) communication. Many also include an interface that communicates with an application. Readers can be hand-held or mounted in strategic locations so as to ensure they are able to read the tags as the tags pass through an interrogation zone.
PIC
PIC is used to receive the signal which is come from RFID receiver. For the LCD display the data s can be sent through PIC.
RF TRANSMITTER
RF transmitter is used to transmit the signal from the RFID receiver. Inside the transmitter the encoder is present. Data s can be sent after the encoding. At the receiver section the DECODING process takes place for get the original signal.
ADVANTAGE:
1. Low power consumption
2. We can access vary easily.
3. Improves security performance in the security places because we cannot make the duplicate RFID card.
APPLICATION:
We can use RFID based security system in highly secured areas such as
1. RFID based Bank security system.
2. RFID based door opening and closing
3. RFID based production security system
CONCLUSION
The progress in science & technology is a non-stop process. New things and new technology are being invented. As the technology grows day by day, we can imagine about the future in which thing we may occupy every place. This project is used in shopping complex for purchase the products. In this project RFID card is used as security access for product. If the product is put in to the trolley means it will shows the amount and also the total amount. But in this project RFID card is used for accessing the products. So this project improves the security performance and also the speed.
The principle of the development of science is that
NOTHING IS IMPOSSIBLE
So we shall look forward to a bright & sophisticated world.
PROJECT ESTIMATE
S.NO NAME OF THE COMPONENT PRICE PER COMPONENT QUANTITY TOTAL PRICE
1. RFID reader 1500 2 3000
2. RFID tag 800 1 800
3. Microcontroller 850 1 850
4. L.C.D 600 1 600
5. Transformer 300 1 300
6. Driver circuit 200 1 200
7. Relay 30 1 30
8. PCB 30 1 30
9. Alarm 20 1 20
10. L.E.D 3 1 3
11. Miscellaneous 100 - 100
GRAND TOTAL 5993
REFERENCES
THROUGH WEB SITES:
1. rfidjournal.com
2. teamrfid.com
3. wikipedia.org
4. rfidjournal.com
5. relayband.com
6. microcontroller.com
7. instructables.com
8. samsung.com
9. futurlec.com
THROUGH BOOKS:
S.NO NAME OF THE BOOK PUBLICATION AUTHOR
1. MICROCONTROLLERS (ENGLISH) JOB D.VIJAYA KUMAR
N.KARUPPIAH
J.SIVANEYA SELAVAN
2. ELECTRICAL MACHINES - II N.V G.MAHALAKSHMI
S.SRITHAR
3. ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS N.V M.PARASURAM
4. CONTROL OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES MAHESH KARTHIK K.SOURI RAJAN
A.SHANKARA SUBRAMANIAM